PART 1 -RHYTHM AND STRUGGLE ACADEMIC RESEARCH.

HOW MUSIC MOVED DURING APARTHEID:

Anne Schumann's article, "The Beat that Beat Apartheid: The Role of Music in the Resistance against Apartheid in South Africa," provides an in-depth analysis of how music, including traditional African drumming, was instrumental in the anti-apartheid movement. Here are some key points from the article that relate to Rhythm and struggle.

The use of music as a tool for political influence is evident in South Africa’s apartheid era, where the state went beyond mere propaganda to actively shape musical expression in alignment with its policies. The apartheid regime’s philosophy of “separate development” extended into cultural spheres, embedding political meaning into the arts((The Beat That Beat Apartheid). Through mechanisms such as the Publications Act of 1974, which established the Directorate of Publications, the government exercised direct censorship over publications and sound recordings, responding to complaints from both law enforcement and the public (Schumann, 2008). This control over music exemplifies how state intervention in artistic expression can be used to maintain ideological dominance, a theme that resonates with the overarching narrative of Track 1 in this project.

Book: Sound Of Africa!

 Building on this context, Sound of Africa! offers a vivid portrayal of how music production during apartheid was shaped by both cultural pride and systemic division. In particular, mbaqanga sessions in South African studios became more than just recordings; they were sites of resistance, cultural negotiation and creative adaptation. The tensions between black producers and white engineers reflected the broader struggles of the time, yet through rhythm, sound and collaboration, artists preserved and redefined African musical identity within an oppressive system.

Mbaqanga music during apartheid was a strong expression of black South African culture, resilience, and resistance. Emerging during the 1960s and 1970s, it blended Zulu Rhythms with jazz, gospel, and Western influences. It provided a sense of identity and joy amid hardship. ‘In a densely layered, compact instance of performance, mbaqanga can be experienced as a deeply personal, socially saturated, immediate and substantive ‘thing” that gets you in your feeling. (Meintjes, 2003). - Ch. 1

Ch. 5 - Exploring Zuluness (p. 174 – 216)

During the 1970s, “in a South African studio, in a mbaqanga session, the producer assumes he and the white sound engineer do not share a listening history, except for crossover recordings, which they can draw on to accomplish the seemingly impossible task of talking precisely about timbre.” (Meintjes, 2003).

Even in a collaborative space, like a studio, apartheid’s effects lingered. Producers and engineers had to negotiate not just language, but aesthetic values, and sonic expectations.

This is a perfect example of how rhythm, sound, and African drumming were preserved and reshaped within the constraints of apartheid – it became a space of negotiation, translation and quiet resistance.

BELOW IS ARTICLE INFO ON HOW AFRICAN DRUMMING AROUND THE WORLD CREATES UNITY.

African Drumming Culture: History, Spirituality, and Influence:

Influence on Global Music Genres: African drumming traditions have significantly shaped various music genres worldwide. The transatlantic slave trade facilitated the fusion of African rhythms with indigenous and European musical elements, leading to the creation of new genres. In the Caribbean, this blend gave rise to reggae, calypso, and salsa, while in the United States, African drumming laid the foundation for jazz and blues, enabling enslaved Africans to express their struggles and resilience.

Modern World Music and Percussion: The influence of African drumming is evident in contemporary world music, where African-inspired percussion is employed to evoke a primal energy and a connection to the earth. Musicians and drumming groups worldwide draw inspiration from African drumming styles, utilising instruments like the djembe and talking drum to create rhythms that resonate with global audiences.

Global Celebration and Education: Today, African drumming culture is celebrated globally through music festivals, workshops, and cultural events that honour Africa's musical heritage. International tours by African drumming ensembles showcase diverse rhythms and techniques, while workshops offer individuals from various backgrounds the opportunity to learn traditional African rhythms, fostering cultural connection and self-expression.

These points underscore the enduring legacy and global influence of African drumming traditions, highlighting their role in shaping diverse musical landscapes and promoting cultural unity.

THE CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE OF AFRICAN DRUMMING:

African drumming is deeply rooted in tradition, serving as a powerful form of cultural expression, storytelling, and community bonding. Its rhythms carry history, spirituality, and identity. For the first track of this project, I have explored traditional drumming techniques, their historical context, and cultural impact, drawing from key scholarly sources.

Although my first track is more about South Africa and the oppression there, I thought it would be interesting to look into the West African culture of drumming, as the Djembe was at the forefront of protest songs during Apartheid. Below, we look into the origins of where it came from.

BOOK - Studies in African Music" by A.M. Jones:

With a particular focus on rhythm and drumming patterns. Jones examines the structure and function of drumming in African societies, offering valuable insights into how these rhythms have been utilised in various cultural contexts.

WEST AFRICAN EWE TRIBE: - Chapter 3:

Jones provides a detailed examination of African percussion instruments, including their construction, tuning, and the specific roles they play within musical ensembles. When analysing the Ewe Tribes Orchestra. It breaks into 3 sections:

(Jones, 1959) mentions that the Gankogui is the foundation of the background section. The best ones are made of iron smelted in the traditional African way. Like the Gankogui, the Atoke, which is used for the same role in the orchestra, is “made of iron, beaten to shape and length of one’s hand and wrist”. The Atoke is only used in some dances. When used, it is “not tuned to a definite note, and when several are used together, they must be of differing pitch so that the pattern of each may be clearly heard.” To end this section, I'll discuss the drum section, as it is the focus. “Their names, from left to right, are Sogo, Atsimevu, Kidi and Kagan. Atsimevu is the master drum. These drums were originally carved from a solid tree trunk, but since they mastered the craft of creating them, “they have made Indigenous use of their skill and found it easier to make a drum from planks. The joints in these barrel drums are well-made and must be if the drum is to have any resonance. The iron hoops are not welded but lapped over. Sogo and Kidi are closed at the bottom with a wooden floor just as with European barrels” used from shipments overseas. “Atsimevu is open at the bottom.” The skins on the drums are “made from the hide of the Avugbe or Adzok, the skin has to be thin but tough”. To allow the skin to stay fixed to the drum, “home-made thick twine is used”. To continue through the mending process “drum pegs which have a notch near their head to catch the string. They sit in holes

bored in the side of the drum and are held by friction only”. Tuning: As the method of tuning is similar for all the drums, I will break down the Atsimevu only.

(A.M Jones, 1959). It involves a two-stage process:

TUNING  WETTING

The Djembe, from a different West African tradition, shares similarities with the Ewe drums. It's carved from a single piece of wood, uses goat skin and is tuned by adjusting tension, like the Atsimevu. Both serve as a lead drum, guiding rhythm and interacting with dancers and the ensemble.

POLYRHYTHMS EXPLAINED -     Soundbrenner.com

A polyrhythm occurs when two or more contrasting rhythms are played simultaneously while sharing the same pulse reference. It differs from a cross-rhythm in that the subdivisions are distinct rather than aligned. For example, in a 4/4 measure, one rhythmic layer may follow a standard four-beat division while another divides the same measure into five beats. This 5:4 polyrhythm results in an interwoven rhythmic texture where both patterns coexist within the same time frame.

Typically, one of the rhythmic layers involves an irregular subdivision, such as quintuplets, while the other follows a more conventional division of the beat, often in multiples of two. However, this is not a strict rule, as polyrhythms can also feature combinations like a triplet against a quintuplet (3:5), creating more complex rhythmic interactions. It’s important to note that a ratio such as 4:8 does not qualify as a polyrhythm since both layers ultimately reduce to the same subdivision (4:4), making it a cross-rhythm instead. In essence, polyrhythms emerge when rhythms contrast in their divisions while maintaining a shared pulse, forming a cohesive yet layered rhythmic phrase.  (Almeida, M. P. 2024)

CALL AND RESPONSE: THE HEARTBEAT OF AFRICAN MUSIC – africanmusiclibrary.org - Article

Call-and-response is a core element of African music, creating a dynamic musical conversation between a leader and a group. The leader initiates a phrase (the call), and the group responds with a complementary phrase (the response), making the audience an integral part of the performance. This interaction is deeply rooted in African musical traditions, from choral singing styles in Isicathamiya and Coptic music to the rhythmic exchanges in drumming traditions. Groups like Ladysmith Black Mambazo, the Soweto Gospel Choir, and the Ndlovu Youth Choir showcase this style in their performances, while African drumming follows the same structure, with a master drummer leading and other drummers responding.

Beyond music, call-and-response plays a significant role in African oral traditions. Griots, the storytellers and historians of West Africa, use this technique to engage their audience, prompting them to react and participate in the storytelling process. In contemporary music, genres like highlife, Afrobeat, Afrobeats, Benga, Fula music, Soukous, Juju, Fuji, gospel, and many others incorporate this style, either vocally or instrumentally, to create a vibrant, engaging sound.

The impact of call-and-response extends beyond Africa, influencing global music genres such as jazz, blues, rock 'n' roll, funk, and gospel. Jazz, in particular, thrives on this tradition, with musicians improvising back and forth, mirroring the call-and-response structure. Even classical music employs a similar technique known as antiphony.

This style is more than just a musical pattern; it encourages participation and strengthens cultural identity. Through its repetitive nature, it makes learning songs easier and brings people together in a shared musical experience, whether in traditional settings, religious ceremonies, or modern-day concerts.

Conclusion:

This research has given me a deeper appreciation for African drumming as both an art form and a cultural archive. For the first track, I’ve drawn inspiration from traditional rhythms, using polyrhythms and call-and-response to capture its depth and energy in a modern context.

DETAILS ON SIGNIFICANT PROTEST INSTRUMENTS:

Ngoma – Drums.

Significance: Ngoma Drums were central to protests, dances and spiritual ceremonies.

Cultural Role: Drums were used to communicate messages and mobilise communities in defiance of apartheid laws.

Sekuru’s stories

Originating in South Africa, there are many different Ngoma drums that share roughly the same construction technique. These drums are carved from whole tree trunks and turned into “Cylindrical wooden bodies”. This allows the cowskin to create a drum head which “is held firmly in place by a series of wooden pegs”. Before performances, the Ngoma drum is turned upside down to “heat the drum head”. This creates the effect of “raising the instrument’s pitch”. – (2019 Jennifer Kyker.)

FLUTE – Penny Whistle:  - “Spokes Mashiyane”

Spokes Mashiyane - He was part of the Alexandra pennywhistle scene that emerged from the northern Sotho communities with strong indigenous wind traditions. Like other boys working as juvenile domestic servants, he brought rural flute practices to Johannesburg, helping transform the umntshingo tradition into what became kwela music. (Coplan, 2008).

Significance:  During the 1950s, this flute played a central role in kwela music, which later became a form of Subtle Protest.

Why it mattered: It represents a sense of joy and resilience in urban Township culture during oppression.

GUITAR – Acoustic: - “Johnny Clegg” (White Zulu)

Significance: Widely used in protest songs that addressed justice, this instrument was key in Maskanda music, which is Zulu-rooted.

Why it mattered:  Clegg’s band Juluka and his nimble guitarwork of the pop style of music

Known as mbaqanga, with lyrics in Zulu and English, created a feeling of unity, especially in Africa for its people. – Andy Paine, 2019

LINK TO THE NEXT ACADEMIC RESEARCH - RHYTHM & STRUGGLE CREATIVE LOG

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

BOOKS:

Meintjes, L. (2003). Sound of Africa! : making music Zulu in a South African studio. Durham, NC Duke Univ. Press.

Jones, A.M. (1959). Studies in African Music. London, Oxford University Press.

Coplan, D.B. (2008). In Township Tonight! Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

ARTICLES/JOURNAL:

Schumann, A. (2008). The Beat that Beat Apartheid: The Role of Music in the Resistance against Apartheid in South Africa. Stichproben: Vienna Journal of African Studies, 8(14), pp.17–39.

Afriklens (2024). African Drumming Culture: History, Spirituality, and Influence. AFRIKLENS. Available at: https://www.afriklens.com/african-drumming-culture-history-spirituality-and-influence/#comments.

Soundbrenner (2024). Polyrhythms explained – what you need to know! Soundbrenner. Available at: https://www.soundbrenner.com/blogs/articles/polyrhythms-explained-what-you-need-to-know?srsltid=AfmBOoo3B4Di2EEg2jvKjjw1Xc3jv3gxILInrK87Yb0dzFft5ZJXwZTD.

Nwachukwu, K. (2024). Call and Response: The Heartbeat of African Music. Africanmusiclibrary. Available at: https://africanmusiclibrary.org/blog/call-and-response-the-heartbeat-of-african-music.

Kyker, J. (2019). Ngoma. Sekuru’s Stories. Available at: https://sekuru.org/ngoma/.

Paine, A. (2019). Johnny Clegg and the ethics of cross-cultural pop music. Andypaine. Available at: https://andypaine.wordpress.com/2019/07/18/johnny-clegg-and-the-ethics-of-cross-cultural-pop-music/.